Southwest and United Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Southwest and United - Essay Example This report provides an insightful study and a comparative analysis of the two companies Southwest airlines and United airlines. As both the companies belong to the same industry, this report has been devised with a consideration to compare their financial performance with the help of the annual reports for the year 2005. The fact that the United airlines filed for bankruptcy in the year 2002 is greatly evident in the current financial position of the company. This report evaluates the factors as to the differences in the financial performance of the two companies. The financial analysis in this report provides the detailed comparison of both the companies' financial position and performance based on the data obtained from the companies' financial statements with respect to profitability, liquidity, solvency and investment. It first of all presents a ratio analysis and then identifies major factors that have precipitated the different results for the two countries. Ratio analysis is the pre-eminent technique to evaluate a company's performance and figure out major problems (Meigs & Meigs). Riahi-Belkaoui propounds that financial ratios serve the analysts in making the information in financial statements interpretable for the various users of financial statements. In the same vein, this paper will assess and analyse the financial position and performance of the two companies Southwest airlines and United airlines with the help of a broad array of financial ratios using financial data available from the two companies' annual reports. Profitability Analysis Profitability analysis is the first step in evaluating any company's financial position. Most of the financial statement users happen to be interested in knowing the potency of a company in terms of enhancing its ability to earn profit for the stakeholders. Riahi-Belkaoui says, "the profitability ratios portray ability of the firm to efficiently use the capital committed by stockholders and lenders to generate revenues in excess of expenses" (11). The analysis to assess the profitability of Southwest and United airlines has been done with the help of following ratios. Ratios Southwest United Operating Profit Margin 10.81% (1.26%) Net Profit Margin 11.52% (121.87%) Return on Capital Employed 12.28% (1.13%) Return on Assets 3.85% (109.48%) Mcmenamin says that the Operating Profit Margin Percentage evaluates the percentage of profit earned by a company on sales after the production and distribution activities. It reveals how well the company manages its expenses so as to attain maximum profit out of its total sales for its shareholders. Southwest's operating profit ratio of 10.81% reflects that the company loses about 90% of its operating revenues in meeting its various operating expenses. United airlines on the other hand, fails to manage its operating expenses that leads the company towards operating loss of 1.26%. Despite the fact that the company's operating revenue for the year 2005 is much greater than that of the Southwest, it fails to retain it as profit for its shareholders. The Net Profit margin shows what percentage of profit a company earns on its sales. It reveals the profit retained by a company after accounting

Mind and Morality Essay Example for Free

Mind and Morality Essay The external factors play a huge role in shaping one’s decisions. One may think that his genetic and background history has the most influence on his actions, but in reality, the intensity of a given situation has greater impact in the choices of the individual. The surroundings one lives in ultimately influences his perception, decision, and morality. In his essay, â€Å"The Power of Context,† Malcolm Gladwell states how it is the little things in life that makes the bigger difference and in many aspects this is true. In Daniel Gilbert’s essay, â€Å"Immune to Reality† he talks about how human perception about reality is not always accurate. In Oliver Sacks’s essay, â€Å"The Mind’s Eye† he shows how there are many different perceptions to view the world. So at the same time, is it possible to dictate what is right and wrong in one’s life if all the decisions are a result of his given situation and surroundings? Also the morality for each person varies depending on their circumstances and perception of their world. Ultimately, an absolute form of right and wrong does not exist because the context of the situation always changes, but still it is possible to achieve an applicable standard of morality in society. Each individual has his own way of looking at the world that is completely unique when compared to the way another person does. This is perception of reality and this form is always open to discussion because the person generates this viewpoint. Each individual makes his decisions based on his perception of the world. â€Å"The processes by which we generate positive views are many: we pay more attention to favorable information, we surround ourselves with those who provide it, and we accept it uncritically (Gilbert 134). In many instance one creates his own perception to suit his way of thinking, so the individual could be in the center of his world. â€Å"He seemed to regard this loss of visual imagery as a prerequisite for the full development, the heightening, of his other senses† (Sacks 304). Most people see becoming blind as unfortunate event, but according to this person it helped him to improve his other senses. â€Å"The tabloids dubbed Goetz the subway vigilante and the death wish shooter† (Gladwell 153). Rather than seeing Goetz as a lunatic the newspapers depicted him as a hero. So this shows the difference in perception between people and how it varies from individuals. Importantly since each person’s perception varies it is hard to claim whose perception is right or wrong because ultimately is there a â€Å"right† perception of the world that everybody should be following? Even when viewing a painting everybody has their own interpretation of the art. No one claims there is only one â€Å"right† perception; rather the different perceptions are simply different approaches towards looking at the world. â€Å"It was simply inconceivable that someone could pull a gun on someone else on the subway and be called a hero for it. † (Gladwell 154) shows how different viewpoints affect the verdicts of a situation. A hero to some people might be a villain to others and it is hard to claim who is the â€Å"right† hero. The difference in subjectivity among people will always create a discrepancy of opinions among people. Since a variety of perception exists, then is it possible to have a perfect set and stone â€Å"right and wrong† rules in life? The context of a given matter plays a huge role in deciding the morality of the event. Morality is very much depended on the background information of the event. It is very hard to dictate the morality of an issue without seeing the bigger picture. Most people might see stealing as a wrong act, but what if someone stole a piece of bread in order to make sure he does not die from starvation, is that still a wrong act? In a situation like that one might feel sympathetic to that poor fellow and probably will see stealing as reasonable in that given situation. â€Å"We do not realize that our views will change† (Gilbert 135), the idea of morality varies on the situation because the context of the event directly affects morality. â€Å"Blindness now becomes for him a dark paradoxical gift. This is not just compensation, but a whole new order, a new mode of human being† (Sacks 305), in many aspects blind people do not see their condition as a curse or burden rather a different approach towards living and for most sighted people it might be hard to understand and accept this approach. â€Å"That there are instances where you can take normal people from good schools and happy families and good neighborhoods and powerfully affect their behavior merely by changing the immediate details of their situation† (Gladwell 162) this shows how the little details of an event plays huge role in the outcomes of an event. Essentially, context of a situation is what dictates morality and it is going to be almost impossible to label morality as set and stone as something like the Ten Commandments because the context always changes. Even though the standards of morality vary according to the situation there are some aspects of morality that one subconsciously accepts. Some ethics are universally considered wrong and one’s mind without even one knowing already knows that some choices are not right. That is why the mind tends to usually question the choices one makes. â€Å"When we cook facts, we are similarly unaware of why we are doing it, and this turns out to be a good thing, because deliberate attempts to generate positive views† (Gilbert 134), subconsciously to some extend individuals are aware of the morality behind an action and this will help individuals to make their decisions wisely. â€Å"To what extent are we our experiences, our reactions shaped, predetermined, by our brains, and to what extend do we shape our own brains† (Sacks 303), There are some emotions and judgments that are simply preinstalled in one’s mind which aids an individual in making choices that are difficult. â€Å"After a while the bad guys wised up and began to leave their weapons home and pay their fares† (Gladwell 157) this shows how there is a consciousness inside individuals that helps in guiding with decision making. When making a choice that might inflict pain to us or others one’s mind will usually try to suggest against that decision. That is why the idea of taking an innocent person’s life is universally seen as a wrongful act in societies. Therefore, there is a sense of unconscious morality that lies within the hearts of most individuals. Achieving a complete form of morality is a very idealistic thought because practically it’s not possible. There are infinitely many ways of perceiving morality and it would be impossible to set a standard that would suit all the time. â€Å"Too often people with sight don’t see anything† (Sacks 310). There are parts that even one’s eye sometimes cannot capture meaning that sometimes it’s simply not possible to account for all the possibilities. â€Å"The benefit of all this unconscious cookery is that it works, but the cost is that it makes us strangers to ourselves† (Gilbert 135). People sometime engage in activities without being aware of the magnitude of the situation. †They are both based on the premise that an epidemic can be reversed, can be tipped, by tinkering with the smallest details of the immediate environment† (Gladwell 157) the intensity of the situation has a huge influence on the decision of the individual. Due to all this, perceiving morality completely would be very difficult. Also having a perfect morality would require infinite knowledge which humans do not possess. As an individual one is limited at what he observes at a given time and there are limitations for each individual in this world. However, through the perceptions of many individuals, people will be able to come up with a better understanding of morality. Even with the limitations each individual has a small understanding of morality in the back of his head. Essentially, when all these understanding that are possessed by individuals are combined then a suitable set of standards will be formed that can accompany most situations. The collective effort of people will help to generate a better set of morality that will help in creating a peaceful environment for people to live in. That is why it is important to have many different perceptions of morality because they all eventually lead to creating appropriate rules that will be suitable for the well-being of a society. Despite not being able to have an absolute morality with infallible accuracy and with infinite knowledge, an applicable method of sensing morality is still practical. Individuals lack the ability to have a perfect morality because for one to acquire it in completion one needs to possess infinite amount of knowledge. Despite this back drop each individual innately has the ability to know morality in small parts and therefore combining the small parts of every individual will help to achieve a suitable set of codes. The differences in perception between people only aids to benefit humans in portraying a better understanding of morality. That is why it is important that there are different types of perceptions because if there was only one view then a very limited and narrow minded principle would be prevalent in the world. The different pathways of thinking done by people finally leads to achieving a suitable mode of morality. An absolute form of morality will never be possible in this imperfect world, however, that does not mean accomplishing a reasonable standard is impossible.

Governments On Preventing Air Pollution In Colombo Environmental Sciences Essay

Governments On Preventing Air Pollution In Colombo Environmental Sciences Essay Air pollution is the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke, or vapour in quantities and of characteristics and duration such as to be injurious to human, plant, or animal life or to property, or to interfere unreasonably with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property. 1. Air is the very basic need of every living organism. Air is essential to life on earth. All organisms require moderately pure air, and they cannot survive without it. Air is considered safe when it contains no harmful dust and gases. Air pollution effects global warming, ozone depletion, acid rain and various respiratory illnesses. 2. The air pollution has worsened in most large cities in the developing world. In Sri Lanka, Colombo city is facing this problem due to the highly increased vehicle emission and few other environmental issues. The high density of population and industrialization is the other most important environmental issues that have drawn the attention of policymakers, administrators, and environmentalists in the recent past. Most countries in the world are trying to give a solution to air pollution in their countries by revising their policies, rules and regulations. However Sri Lanka is still not taken firm action to revise the environmental policies, rules and regulations to prevent air Pollution. 3. Colombo is the main commercial and business hub of Sri Lanka and as a result, many people are arrived into the city daily. The central district, which comprises of Fort and Pettah, provides more than 100,000 jobs and is estimated to have a daytime population of more than 650,000. The greater Colombo area contains more than 4 million people or 26% of the countrys population, but covers only 5.6% of the entire land area. Outside the city, Katunayake Bandaranaike International Airport and the Free Trade Zone further increase traffic congestion in Colombo. As the most important commercial and administrative center, Colombo attracts the maximum number of vehicles and individuals. Therefore it is highly vulnerable to health hazards due to vehicle emissions. 4. Clean, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen by volume and 20.94% oxygen. The remaining 0.97% is composed of a gaseous mixture of carbon dioxide, helium, argon, krypton, nitrous oxide and xenon, as well as very small amounts of some other organic and inorganic gases whose amount in the atmosphere vary with time and place. Various amounts of contaminants continuously enter the atmosphere through both natural and man-made processes that exist upon the earth. Man as a pollutant has labelled that portion of these substances which interacts with the environment to cause toxicity, disease, aesthetic distress, physiological effects or environmental decay. 5. The human activities are the primary cause of pollution and as the population increases, the attendant pollution problems also raise proportionately. The first significant change in humans effect of nature came with his discovery of fire. Prehistoric human built a fire in his cave for cooking, heating and to supply light. The problem of air pollution came into existence at this time. OBJECTIVES 5. General Objective. To analyze the responsibility of the Government and its authorities towards the reducing of air pollution in Colombo City and give recommendations to prevent Air pollution in Colombo City. 6. Specific Objectives. The specific objectives of the research are as follows. a. To examine the various Air pollutants. b. To examine the impact of the air pollution. c. To examine the actions taken by the Government and its authorities to prevent Air Pollution in Colombo City. d. To analyze and suggest the recommendations for implementations based on the findings of the study. CHAPTER 02 METHODOLOGY STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 1. The air pollution in main cities in developing countries is one of the leading critical environment problems. The health impact of the air pollution looks likely to be greater in the capital of Sri Lanka. Therefore the responsibility of the government and its authorities is to protect air and minimize the air pollution in the country. 2. However, the actions taken on air protection in Colombo are inadequate and not suit the present day context. Therefore, this paper will identify the effects of air pollution in Colombo and analyze the impact of air pollution in Colombo City. Further this paper will analyse the effectiveness of existing legal remedies in preventing air pollution. HYPOTHESIS 3. Actions taken by the Government and its authorities to prevent air pollution in Colombo City are inadequate. SCOPE OF THE STUDY 4. This study will explore the air pollution in Colombo city and the responsibility of the Government and its authorities and how air pollution can undermine the goals of development. 5. Furthermore, policies that are necessary on economic basis can deliver significant environmental benefits. However, these policies are not enough to ensure urban air protection. Therefore the strong public organizations and policies for urban air protection are very essential. The policies adapted by the Sri Lankan government over the past two decades to rely more on development. However, natural air protection is an area which government must uphold a central role. 6. Examine the effects of air pollution in Colombo and validity and practicability of the existing environmental policies and regulations in Sri Lanka. METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION 7. The primary study shows that the Colombo city would be the area where the air pollution can be seen predominantly. The both primary and secondary data will collect regarding the subject of air pollution in Colombo City from the available resources like publications, books and internet web sites. 8. The main decisive factor is to look at this problem in government and citizens perspectives. Thus, the views of government authorities and citizens will seek to get their expectations of the desired strategies and policies. Scholars on the subject and professionals on this subject will be interviewed through discussions. A predetermined questionnaire will be distributed among the selected citizens in Colombo city to absorb their views. LIMITATIONS 9. This research study was done within three months of period and with limited time. Hence it was difficult to cover all the pollution proven areas in Colombo area. Therefore the calculation might be showed slight difference if compare with another research. It also faced the difficulty of getting genuine answers from the community. CHAPTER 03 AIR POLLUTION ATMOSPHERE 1. The atmosphere surrounds the earth. It is composed of gas molecules held close to the earths surface by gravitation. It consists of Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (20%), Carbon dioxide (0.03%) and small amounts of inert gases such as argon, neon, and krypton. It also consist changing amounts of water. Dust participles called as particulates are also consist with varying amounts. 2. The earths current atmosphere consists of several layers as Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. The average composition of the atmosphere varies little from place to place, except for its moisture contents. The variation of moisture condition is a very important natural condition affecting plant growth. Air temperature is another important environmental condition that profoundly affects both plant and animal life. Air is in constant motion and its movement is creates wind. 3. Some of the atmospheric gases have the capacity to absorb heat. These are called Green House Gasses. Carbon Dioxide, Water vapour and Ozone are three of the naturally make green house gasses in the atmosphere. Green house gasses are liable for maintaining the level of temperature of the earth. If the quantity of these gasses increases in the atmosphere then additional heat will be trapped and the earths atmosphere will get warmer. These gasses have been increasing in the atmosphere in recent years in the earth. 4. In the normal condition the atmosphere contains a layer of ozone in the atmosphere. This layer traps a part of Ultra violet rays and X-Rays, reducing the amount of these deleterious rays reach to the earth. However, the introduction of Chlorofluoro carbon (CFC) in to the atmosphere has been shown to damage the ozone layer. CFC is chemical that have been used for many years in aerosol, air conditioning and in refrigeration. AIR POLLUTION 5. Air Pollution is the presence in the atmosphere of one or more foreign materials such as dust, fumes, gases, mist or smoke in quantities and in durations which are harmful to human, plant or animal life or to properties. A gas like CO2 which is a normal element of the atmosphere can in certain conditions, become a pollutant, when its concentrations increase to levels that threaten the well-being of living things or disrupt physical or biological processes. 6. Air pollution is as old as civilization itself. The first air pollution incident took place, when early humans made fire in poorly ventilated or set fire to a dry forest. But it was the growth of industries after the industrial revolution that became the largest engine of air pollution first in Britain, Europe, North America and then spread to the other places of the World. 7. Damage to the clean air has three possible costs to present and future human welfare. The Health of Human may be harmed. Also the economic productivity may be reduced. In addition, the pleasure or satisfaction obtained from an unspoiled natural air may be lost. Since spoiled urban air problem vary across countries and with the stage of industrialization, each country required to assess its own priorities carefully. Emissions from transport industry and population growth impose serious costs for health condition and productivity in Sri Lanka. AIR POLLUTANTS TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS 8. Basically air pollution can be classified as primary and secondary types. Primary pollutants get into atmosphere directly by various processes. Major part of this is added to the atmosphere due to the burning of fossil fuels in transport vehicles and by industries. Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, Sulphur oxide and Hydrocarbons are some examples for primary air pollutants. Secondary air pollutants are those formed in the air through various chemical reactions. Some of the primary pollutants undergo chemical reactions once they are in the atmosphere and produce secondary pollutants. For an example Sulphur oxides will react with atmospheric water vapour and produce acids. This way acid rain is produced and it leads to disruption of various eco-systems. Another example is the smog produced by the action of sunlight on automobile exhaust emitted in to the atmosphere. 9. Air pollutants can be either in the form of gases or in the form of particles. Some of the common pollutants are Carbon Dioxide, Sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, methane and ozone. Particulate pollutants include dust, fume, mist, smoke and sprays. 10. Dust particles get in to the air when materials are being handled or processed. Dust from cement, coal, and bricks and saw dust from wood working are few examples of such particulate pollutants. Fumes and mist are not many solid particles, formed in the atmosphere due to condensation of vapours by sublimation or chemical reaction processes. Smoke particle are formed as a result of incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials. Liquid particles referred to as spray are formed by the atomization of a parent liquid. SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS 11. Some pollutants are formed and emitted by natural processes. Pollen grains from flowers, smoke particles from forest fires, volcanic eruptions and wind blown dust are examples of particulates of natural origin. There are also naturally occurring gasses such as nitrogen oxide and methane. 12. Man made sources of pollutants can be considered under stationary combustion processes transportation, industrial and the agricultural processes. 13. When fuel such as oil or coal used in power plants, gasses and particulate pollutants are emitted in to air. These pollutants consist of a mixture of particles such as fly ash and smoke and gasses such as the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are also produced in combustion process. 14. In transportation, particularly from vehicles, the pollutants are emitted in to the air. These pollutants comprise particulates such as smoke, lead and gasses like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons. These pollutants are high in concentration around traffic light junctions in the cities such as Colombo. 15. In industrial processes, depending on the type of energy used, a wide range of pollutants are emitted. If the industry burns oil as its energy source, smoke, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides will be emitted to the air. 16. In Sri Lanka a large percentage of the energy consumed comes from fuel wood. Burning of fuel wood, used for industrial purposes or domestic use, also produces pollutants. Some agricultural activities such as crop dusting add particulate pollutants to the atmosphere. Further, the burning of forests for chena cultivation can be grouped in to this category. 17. Vehicle Emission: Increased vehicle emission in Sri Lanka mainly Colombo is the most significant environmental issue that has drawn the concentration of policymakers, administrators, and environmentalists in the recent past. Various studies undertaken by regulatory agencies and researchers clearly indicate that inefficient combustion of petroleum in motor vehicles is the primary cause of growing air pollution in Colombo city. Lack of information on economic and environmental costs of vehicle emission and its improvement and prevention have inhibited public response and enforcement, and impeded the implementation of existing laws, and the development of further regulations. The worst prevalent air pollutants emitted from vehicles comprise particulate matter (PM), lead (Pb), non-methane volatile organic components (NMVOC), nitrogen oxide (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO). Of these, particulate matter and lead are the most detrimental components of vehicle exhaus t that affect the environment and human beings. 18. Apart from pollutants emitted by petrol-driven vehicles, the amount of exhaust from diesel-driven vehicles is large and therefore a matter of major public concern due to its undesirable environmental effects. However diesel-engine exhaust contains less toxic gases, it has a much higher particulate matter consideration than petrol-engine exhaust. In Sri Lanka, the observed levels of TSP, SO2, O3, and lead are significantly higher than air quality standards recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Central Environmental Authority (CEA) in Sri Lanka. This clearly reveals the special nature of the vehicle emission problem in the country which is directly linked with a wide range of factors such as composition and increase in number of vehicles, price structure of fuel, lack of traffic management, use of low-quality fuel, and lack of alternative fuels. 20. Combustion Engine Exhaust: Cars, busses, trucks, jet airplanes and other combustion engine vehicles cause air pollution. The exhaust from these contains carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide and gaseous oxide. This type of air pollution creates smog which causes respiratory health problems and holes in the ozone layer, which increases the exposure to the harmful rays of the sun. 25. Mills and plants: Mills and plants, such as paper mills, power plants, chemical plants, iron mills, steel mills, cement plants and asphalt plants, release emissions into the atmosphere causing air pollution 21. Factories: Factories, homes and power stations burn fossil fuels, which cause air pollution. The burning of oil and coal also contributes to smog. This air pollution destroys plants, damages buildings and creates oxidation on iron. 22. Petroleum: Petroleum refineries such as Sapugaskanda release hydrocarbons and various particulates that pollute the atmosphere. 23. Pesticides: Pesticides used to destroy indoor and outdoor pests, insecticides used to destroy insects and herbicides use to kill weeds all cause air pollution. 26. Indoor Air Pollution: This happens when there is insufficient ventilation to disburse the toxic fumes from new carpet, paint and/or cleaning chemicals that are used indoors. CHAPTER 04 IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION 1. Several studies conducted in Sri Lankan cities show that air pollution leads to reduced health and quality of life, damage to property, and economic losses. PM10-related health damage in the City of Colombo is about Rs. 26.0 billion per annum; and in the case of PM2.5 it is about Rs. 774 million per annum. This is according to a study by Chandrasiri,S. et. al. (2004) which quantified the health effects of PM2.5 from auto-diesel emissions. Based on the above estimates, the researchers calculated the cost per ton of auto diesel emissions in Colombo. These estimates of the health damage values for PM10 in Colombo come quite close to previous estimates in these studies: 2. Another study on the Exposure to Aerosol Pollution and Reported Respiratory Symptoms Among City Dwellers by Perera, G.B.S., Emmanuel, R., Premasiri, H.D.S., (2006) shows that urban dwellers report higher prevalence of respiratory illnesses since they spend more on the roadsides, have higher exposure and also have all the common respiratory symptoms. Comparison of most common causes of mortality and morbidity data shows that although non-air pollution-related causes remain the primary cause for mortality, air pollution is a significant contributor to morbidity. 3. The average property damage due to urban air pollution in Colombo is estimated at Rs. 12677 (US$ 126) per household per year. The average willingness to pay to avoid property damage from urban air pollution is at Rs. 520 (US$ 5.20) per household per year. If an Air Quality Improvement Fund were to be established, the public would be willing to pay Rs.15460 (US$ 154) per household per year. THE HEALTH IMPACT OF THE AIR POLLUTION 4. Air pollution is increasingly recognized as a threat to the health of people in mainly developing countries. The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die every year from causes directly attributable to air pollution. A study by the University of Birmingham has found a strong co-relation between pneumonia related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles. More Worldwide deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to road traffic accidents. The causes of air pollution related deaths include aggravated asthma, emphysema, bronchitis, lung diseases and respiratory problems. 5. The health effects caused by air pollutants may range from subtle biochemical and physiological changes to difficulty in breathing, coughing, wheezing, and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. 6. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospitalizing and premature deaths. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the bodys respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individuals health status and genetics. . RESPIRATORY HEALTH 7. The effects of air pollution on health of residents in an industrial areas in Colombo city using a cross-sectional design and reported that the adult population living in the industrial area was more likely to have unexplained episodic cough and a significant reduction in expiratory flow as compared to the adult population living in a non-industrial area. The younger population (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 12 years) living in the industrial area were times more likely to have rhinitis as compared to the younger population living in the non-industrial area. 8. School children are another group exposed to high levels of pollutants exaggerated by overcrowding of major schools in cities, especially in Colombo. The prevalence of respiratory symptoms among school children attending a school in Colombo situated close to a busy main road was significantly higher than that of children attending a school situated in a rural area. 9. Based on data of the Colombo Fort monitoring station, episodes of bronchitis, emphysema and other chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases had a strong association with PM10 levels. Nearly 20% of asthma patients who visited the Lady Ridgeway Hospital for Children in Colombo in 2005 could be attributed to exposure to PM10 in Colombo based on the health impact assessment software developed by WHO. Although the location of the Colombo Fort monitoring station may not represent the entire area of study population, this study provides evidence for implementation of early mitigation strategies. 10. Air pollutants were measured using passive samplers in Mount Lavinia, a metropolitan area bordering Colombo, to measure the 24-hour average levels among city dwellers engaged in different occupation. Bus drivers were exposed to more NO2 and SO2 as compared to three-wheeler drivers, shop keepers and outdoor vendors. The highest prevalence of respiratory symptoms was reported among bus drivers. BLOOD LEAD LEVELS 11. Following the introduction of unleaded gasoline, atmospheric lead levels reduced by 81.5%, 82% and 84% in three locations in Colombo measured blood lead levels of a sample of children living near a traffic congested junction in Colombo in 1998 and then one year after the introduction of unleaded gasoline. In 1998, 6% of children had blood lead levels above 10 ÃŽÂ ¼g/dL; in 2003, not a single child had a blood lead level >10 ÃŽÂ ¼g/dl (range 1.67 ÃŽÂ ¼g/dl to 9.7 ÃŽÂ ¼g/dl). 12. The mean blood lead levels in traffic and non-traffic policemen were 7.47 ÃŽÂ ¼g/dl and 7.06 ÃŽÂ ¼g/dl, respectively. Abdominal discomfort, tremor and hypertension were higher in traffic policemen as compared to non-traffic policemen, although the differences were not significant. There may be exposure misclassification as non-traffic policemen are duty bound to control traffic during busy hours. ASTHMA 13. Low air quality, from traffic pollution or high ozone levels, has been repeatedly associated with increased asthma morbidity. Recent studies show a relationship between exposure to air pollutants (e.g. from traffic) and childhood asthma. This research finds that both the occurrence of the disease and exacerbation of childhood asthma are affected by outdoor air pollutants. LUNG CANCER 14. Studies of the American Cancer Society cohort directly link the exposure to particulate matter with lung cancer. For example, if the concentration of particles in the air increases by only 1%, the risk of developing a lung cancer increases by 14%. Further, it has been established that particle size matters, as ultrafine particles penetrate further into the lungs. 15. The majority of the population (more than 50%) was between the ages of 41-50 years and male; the majority of the cases were directly exposed to tobacco smoke (48%). There was an association between smoking and lung cancer but not with biomass fuels use. THE ACTIONS TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT AND ITS AUTHORITIES TO PREVENT AIR POLLUTION IN COLOMBO CITY 16. Banning of importation of two-stroke engine three- wheelers: One of the main accomplishments in improving air quality in Sri Lanka is Banning of importation of two-stroke engine three- wheelers since 2006. The Government banned the importation of two-stroke petrol three-wheelers from 1 January 2008 and prohibited the import of full engine, engine blocks and cylinder heads after 2011 in order to avoid the local assembly of two-stroke engines. 17. Implementation of vehicle emission testing program: Sri Lanka is in the process of implementing the Vehicle Emission Testing program. The Program was launched on 15 July 2008. Several agencies play an important part in its implementation. The Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources developed the emission standards; the Department of Motor Traffic is the nominated implementing agency of the program. This program is designed as a public-private partnership and is a centralized System with two large private sector companies contracted to conduct the vehicle emission tests. Two private sector companies have been selected to set up testing centers in all the main cities of Sri Lanka. The testing centers in the main cities are already in place. 18. Under the Program, vehicle owners must secure an emission certificate because it is a necessity to obtain the annual revenue license in Sri Lanka. After the vehicle is tested, the owner of the vehicle gets an emission certificate which states the emission levels of the vehicle. If the vehicle meets the standards, the owner of the vehicle gets a pass certificate; if he fails, he has to repair the vehicle and go back to the testing center for a re-test. 19. Amendment of National Ambient Air Quality Standards: Considering the latest revised WHO guideline values, Sri Lankan authorities reviewed the National Ambient Air Quality Standards and incorporated PM10 and PM2.5. Sri Lanka set the interim targets 2 as given in the Global update of WHO Air Quality Guideline in 2005. 20. Preparation of National Action Plan for Air Quality Management (Clean Air 2015): Clean Air Sri Lanka and the Air Resource Management Center of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Development have prepared the Clean Air 2015 action plan to manage the air pollution in Sri Lanka. The main areas under the action plan have been identified as priorities, action plans prepared and work started for each: Monitoring Emissions of Power Plants and High Polluting Industries, Monitoring and Reducing Vehicle Emissions, Provisions of Cleaner Fuels for Motor Vehicles, Prepare and Maintain Emissions Inventory, Monitoring Ambient Air Quality, Enhance Public Awareness and carry out health impact assessments and Providing an Indoor Air Pollution Management Programme. 21. Strategic Plan for Traffic Management in Greater Colombo Area (2008-2010): The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka has ordered the preparation and implementation of the Strategic Plan for Traffic Management in Greater Colombo Area. Therefore, the National Transport Commission of the Ministry of Transport has conducted wider discussion with stakeholders and prepared an action plan. This action plan includes several interventions such as the formulation of an urban transport policy, set up of an urban traffic coordinating mechanism, operation of a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), operation of at least two new multimodal terminals and introduction of the advance traffic control system etc., for completion by 2010. CHAPTER 05 ANALYSIS ACTS, RULES AND REGULATIONS 1. In the past in Sri Lanka there were a number of statues with scattered provisions pertaining to Environmental protection and Pollution control. Following are the Acts and regulations published in Sri Lanka in order to prevent air pollution. ACTS National Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980 National Environmental (Amendment) Act, No. 56 of 1988 National Environmental (Amendment) Act, No. 53 of 2000 REGULATIONS PUBLISHED UNDER THE NEA Motor Traffic (emission control) Regulation Number 817/6 dated 3rd May 1994. Ozone Depleting substances and Natural Environmental (Ambient Air Quality) Regulations 1994. Gazette Notification Number 850/4 dated 20th December 1994. Amendment to National Environment (ambient air quality) Regulation 1994. Gazette Notification Number 1562/22 dated 15th August 2008. Amendment to Gazette Notification Number 1295/11 dated 30th June 2003.Gazette Notification Number 1557/14 dated 19th July 2008. Amended Regulations (Air Emission, Fuel and Vehicle Importation standards) Gazette Notification Number 1137/35 dated 23rd June 2000. National Environmental (Air Emissions, Fuel HYPERLINK http://www.cea.lk/pdf/reg1295-11.pdfHYPERLINK http://www.cea.lk/pdf/reg1295-11.pdf Vehicle Importation standards) Amended Regulations. Gazette Notification Number 1295/11 dated 30th June 2003. 2. When compare with many other South Asian countries, Sri Lanka has the best environmental protection regulations. However the enforcement is very unsatisfactory. Sri Lanka has a good National Environmental Act and Environmental Impact Assessment process. However its implementation is rather weak. 3. As an example we can take the vehicle emission test of Sri Lanka. As per the questionnaire distributed among the vehicle drivers in Colombo city it is found that the emission test certificate can be obtain without required standard of the vehicle. The drivers confirmed that they have experience for such incidents. 4. Further, during the research it was found that the only one monitoring site in Colombo is not in a position to check the every pollutant due to the system failure since April 2010. CEA hasnt taken any action to reactivate the system up to now. This shows the least priority given by the government towards the air pollution WEAKNESSES OF ACTIONS TAKEN FOR AIR PROTECTION IN COLOMBO BY THE GOVERNMENT 5. . The National environmental act of Sri Lanka approved in 1980 and it was again amended in 1988 and 2000. For the last 30 years amendments were not in a considerable frame and there are many lapses in the amendments. This shows the least priority given by the ruled governments at that time towards the air pollution. The citizens who were participated in this research also clearly indicated this in the questionnaires. 2. When considering the countries, which achieved less air pollution percentage, there were the separate air pollution act and activating it in a proper manner. A separate authority was established to facilitate in administrational functions. Sri Lanka is still relying on the common environmental act. Due to the prevailing situation in Sri Lanka, it is very essential to have a separate act with special laws to reduce the air pollution in the country as well as the Colombo city. 3. The hierarchy of the Central Environment Authority of Sri Lanka are appointed by HE the president in consultation with the environmental minister of the ruling government. Therefore, a question emerged regarding the impartiality of the members of Central Environmental Authority. All the decisions made by the government may be approved by the CEA in this nature. 4. Authority of issuing licence and approving projects had been granted to the minister of environment by the amendment to the NEA in year 2000. As a result of this amendment the minister has sole authority to activate any harmful project to the environment if the government required it. Further this amendment has increased the validity time of the licence for the projects from one year to three years. The suspension and cancellation the licence, given to the minister from this amendment. If the minister insist it, the owner can continue his project without any interference. 5. The prior way of urban air pollution is the use of motor vehicles.

Europe Population Density :: Free Essay Writer

Europe Population Density Europe is one of the most densely populated regions in the world, but there is great variation within the region. The densest areas seem to center around major capitol cities and major tourist sites in Europe. London, Paris, and Rome are examples of this. The most densely populated areas where there are over 250 people per square mile seem to also fit into the economic core of Europe, especially in the â€Å"banana† region where there are lots of industries. The third reason that this is such a populated area is because of the Marine West Coast Climate. It is a relatively mild climate, which makes it appealing for agriculture and living conditions. The next category is largely influenced by the climate. The Humid Continental, Marine West Coast, and Mediterranean are the climate types in the region have 125-250 people per square mile. People tend to favor and migrate to these climates rather than the cold tundra and highland climates. The dominant soil is alfisols, which is generally a fertile agricultural soil. Another reason for the amount of people in this category is that there are not large mountain ranges or physical obstacles that could hinder living environments. Much of Europe is covered with a density of 25-125 people per square mile. This category spreads through Spain, along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea and is in parts of the Former Soviet Union. Many of the regions in Eastern Europe are struggling economically and the quality of life is poor, which could be reasons for this density. In these areas where there are 25-125 people per square mile, minerals such as iron ore, lead, copper, and zinc, are abundant near the coasts. They provide jobs and boost the economy, which draws and keeps people. I think the major reason for the fewer inhabitants in these areas is because of the physical factors. There are mountainous regions that play a part, especially the Alps, Pyrenees, and Carpathians. The physical reason for the low density in Western Europe is the climates. They are more drastic because they are farther inland on the continent and the warmth from the ocean gusts and anticyclones do not have as much of an effect as near the coasts. The last category is under 25 people per square mile.

7 Dimension

7 Dimensions of Religion The religion that I’ve picked is Taoism and I’m going to talk about 7 dimensions of Taoism. Practical and Ritual Dimension In Taoism, the practical will held on every month 1st and 15th (Chinese calendar). According to the traditional every family shall wake up early morning and pray to the god by using incense stick and candle. They can bless their wish to the god when they are praying. Normally the practices will use fruits as their oblation.The practices will take 1 hour or 2 hours but the prayers can leave after they had pray to the god, just waiting for their oblation to make sure that had received by the god. In Taoism the ritual will happens on some important days like Chinese New Year, Qing Ming and Hungry Ghost festival. The ritual for this three festivals have some similar part, first of all, food may be set out as an  oblation or sacrifice to the spirits of the deceased or the gods.Example like Chinese New Year, the food is sacrific e to the god and Qing Ming the food will be sacrifice to our ancestor and Hungry ghost festival is definitely to the ghost and also our ancestor that out from the hell. In this festivals, another type of sacrifice involves the burning of Joss paper and Hell Bank Notes, on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear, not as a mere image, but as the actual item in the spirit world, making them available for revered ancestors and departed loved ones.Experiential and Emotional Dimension Experiential and Emotional Dimension When a Taoism prays they will bless and say their wish to the god, and at last they will ask the god by two ways, one is toss two coin and if the coins show tail and head it mean the god received your wish and mostly will come true and 2nd way is by shaking the tube fill in will many bamboo sticks and on the every bamboo have 1 special meaning word, it will represents the prophecy, the 1st stick drop out is your prophecy. Narrative or Mythic Dim ensionThe Hungry Ghost Festival of Chinese Taoism is also the Ullambana Festival of Buddhism. Commonly called â€Å"Ghost Festival† or â€Å"Mid-July Festival†, it falls on the fifteenth of every lunar July. There is a mythic that people believe lunar July is a month that all the ghosts will come out from the hell, something like Western culture's Halloween. It is believed that the gates of hell are open, releasing hungry ghosts to the earth to search for food and see their family. So people light up lanterns on roadsides or put lanterns in the river and provide shoes for the convenience of the ghosts.And they pray for their ancestors to bless later generations. Doctrinal and Philosophical Dimension Spiritual, one of the important term in Taoism. â€Å"Taoists believe that human is a microcosm for the universe. The body ties directly into the Chinese five elements. The five organs correlate with the five elements, the five directions and the seasons. Like the Hermetic maxim of â€Å"as above, so below†, Taoism posits that human beings may gain knowledge of the universe by understanding himself.In Taoism, various rituals, exercises, and substances are said to positively affect one's physical and mental health. They are also intended to align one’s spiritually with cosmic forces, or enable ecstatic spiritual journeys. These concepts are basic to Taoism in its elite forms. Internal alchemy and various spiritual practices are used by some Taoists to improve health and extend life, theoretically even to the point of physical immortality. † (Taoism,Doctrinal and Philosophical , n. a, n. d)Ethical and Legal Dimension Taoists believes that man after death will go to hell to receive the punishment for your sins. So that, what you did now will affect your next life. So Taoists is encourage doing charity and helps the people that needed to payback what the sins you have did before. Social and Institutional Dimension During the festival, Taoist will go to temple to pray and get bless from the god, example like, the God Birth. Taoist will buy fruit and joss paper as the oblation. Material DimensionTaoism’s temple most of all will build with many sculpture, example like Dragon and Kylin (Mythical Chinese animal) know as by Chinese unicorn. In front of the temple, there is a censer placed there for people to pierce the incense stick after they pray to the god. Inside the temple, the god statue will placed at the center of the temple. Different temple will place different kind of god statue depend which god’s temple is that. Reference: Taoism Doctrinal and Philosophical, (n. a,n. d) Retrieved on 6/9/2012 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Taoism

Scizophrenia essays

Scizophrenia essays I chose to write my research paper on the bizarre world of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a serious psychotic disorder that is characterized by a loss of contact with reality. It is a severely disabilitating disease that has stricken the lives of almost two million people in the United States alone. Since the disease is so devastating, the majority of people that suffer from it live either on the streets or in mental institutions. It is believed that patients with schizophrenia occupy almost forty percent of the beds in American mental hospitals. All people diagnosed with schizophrenia have perceptual difficulties or in other words suffer from hallucinations. A hallucination is a false sensory experience, such as seeing things, hearing things, and even feeling things that are not really there. Hallucinations have a compelling sense of reality to the persons who suffer from them. Auditory hallucinations by far are the most common form of hallucination in schizophrenia. Thought disord ers or delusions are also a symptom found in all schizophrenics. These include incoherent speech, quick shifts of ideas from one thing to a totally unrelated one, and bizarre thoughts and ideas. The delusions that all schizophrenics encounter are false beliefs that are believed by the schizophrenic and no one else. The delusions of schizophrenics go well beyond thinking that their being watched. They are often convinced that someone or something is controlling them by either radio, hypnosis or some other related form. Schizophrenic persons also have severe disturbances in emotion and behavior. This is the most worrisome symptom to family and friends of the patient. Schizophrenics are incapable of putting themselves in other peoples places. Side effects range from laughing at sad situations to self-mutilation. What makes this disease to be so frightening and so hard to und ...

Free Essays on Profitable Collusion

Profitable Collusion Several themes can be derived from Bessie Head’s, â€Å"The Prisoner Who Wore Glasses†. Possibly, the most apparent, prefabricated theme is strength in numbers; however, the setting, time period, motivations, underlying political implications, and the characters imply more. The theme becomes easily describable as profitable collusion. â€Å"The Prisoner Who Wore Glasses† takes place in1974, at a prison in Africa, more specifically, South Africa. This particular setting is important to the atmosphere of the story for several reasons. South Africa, during 1974, was a place and time of political injustice, decolonization, reverse racism, and distorted leadership through tribalism. Tension among Africa’s inhabitants was extreme, and Head’s writing reflects it. Reverse racism is essential for creating tension and explaining the aggression created from within one race. Reverse racism is racial prejudice directed at others of the same nationality, culture, or society. The main character, Brille, is a black political prisoner. Brille’s complications and resolutions come from a black warder, Jacobus Stephanus Hannetjie, and later in the story Brille complicates Hannetjie’s situation. Head sets the atmosphere when Hannetjie is introduced. Head explains, â€Å"No black warder should be in charge of political prisoners lest this prisoner convert him to his views† (104). Hannetjie, arguably, possessed the ability to express reverse racism, thereby becoming the first black warder in charge of â€Å"Span One† (104). â€Å"Span One† (104) is a group of political prisoners who work and live chained to one another. They are depicted as a group of men experienced in the art of concealment and thievery, but Hannetjie enables them. He creates complications for Brille and â€Å"Span One† (104) by hindering them from obtaining extra food and tobacco. Extra food and tobacco make prison life for Brille and the rest... Free Essays on Profitable Collusion Free Essays on Profitable Collusion Profitable Collusion Several themes can be derived from Bessie Head’s, â€Å"The Prisoner Who Wore Glasses†. Possibly, the most apparent, prefabricated theme is strength in numbers; however, the setting, time period, motivations, underlying political implications, and the characters imply more. The theme becomes easily describable as profitable collusion. â€Å"The Prisoner Who Wore Glasses† takes place in1974, at a prison in Africa, more specifically, South Africa. This particular setting is important to the atmosphere of the story for several reasons. South Africa, during 1974, was a place and time of political injustice, decolonization, reverse racism, and distorted leadership through tribalism. Tension among Africa’s inhabitants was extreme, and Head’s writing reflects it. Reverse racism is essential for creating tension and explaining the aggression created from within one race. Reverse racism is racial prejudice directed at others of the same nationality, culture, or society. The main character, Brille, is a black political prisoner. Brille’s complications and resolutions come from a black warder, Jacobus Stephanus Hannetjie, and later in the story Brille complicates Hannetjie’s situation. Head sets the atmosphere when Hannetjie is introduced. Head explains, â€Å"No black warder should be in charge of political prisoners lest this prisoner convert him to his views† (104). Hannetjie, arguably, possessed the ability to express reverse racism, thereby becoming the first black warder in charge of â€Å"Span One† (104). â€Å"Span One† (104) is a group of political prisoners who work and live chained to one another. They are depicted as a group of men experienced in the art of concealment and thievery, but Hannetjie enables them. He creates complications for Brille and â€Å"Span One† (104) by hindering them from obtaining extra food and tobacco. Extra food and tobacco make prison life for Brille and the rest...

How Insulin Was Discovered

How Insulin Was Discovered The experiment that led to the initial discovery of insulin- the hormone manufactured in the pancreas that regulates the amount of glucose in the blood- almost didn’t happen. How Insulin Almost Wasnt Discovered For years scientists have suspected that the secret to controlling elevated levels of glucose lay in the inner reaches of the pancreas. And when, in 1920, a Canadian surgeon named Frederick Banting approached the head of the University of Toronto’s physiology department with an idea about finding that secret, he was initially rebuffed. Banting suspected a mysterious hormone was being produced in a section of the pancreas called the islets of Langerhans. He theorized that the hormone was getting destroyed by the pancreas’ digestive juices. If he could shut down the pancreas but keep the islets of Langerhans working, he might find the missing substance. Fortunately, Banting’s persuasive powers prevailed and department head John McLeod gave him lab space, 10 Langerhans hormone before it could be isolated. If he could stop the pancreas from working, but keep the islets of Langerhans going, he should be able to find the stuff!  experimental dogs, and a medical student assistant named Charles Best. By August of 1921, Banting and Best succeeded in extracting hormones from the islets of Langerhans- which they called insulin after the Latin word for island. When they injected the insulin into dogs with high blood sugar levels, those levels dropped quickly. With McLeod now taking an interest, the men worked quickly to duplicate the results and then set about running a test on a human subject, 14-year-old Leonard Thompson, who saw his blood sugar levels lower and his urine cleared of sugars. The team published there findings in 1923 and Banting and McLeod were awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine (Banting shared his award money with Best).  On June 3, 1934,  Banting was knighted for his medical discovery. He was killed in an air crash in 1941.

CS Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

CS - Coursework Example Chapter 1 of Neubauer and Fradella’s book examines the controversy in courts and crime that is brought about by change. The controversy in courts and crime is also atrributable to the extensive attention to law by the media. This extensive media attention on courts and crime has its merits and shortcomings. Neubauer and Fradella argue that, media coverage of fictitous and real trials offers a suggestions that the oucome of decisions in courts is influenced by people’s actions, law as it is-by the books-, and law in controversy (5). This clearly helps illustrate how dynamic courts and the criminal justice system is dynamic. This book offers a substantial argument that, the U.S criminal justice system is heavily dependent on the courts, which, arguably play a pivotal role. Court decisions, actions, and process affect or have important consequences on the other components-the police and corrections personnel-of the criminal justice system (8). Likewise, the actions and operations of the corrections department and law enforcement have important consequences on the judiciary. Despite this obvious i nterdependence of these compononents of the criminal justice system, Neubauer and Fradella, concede and argue that, conflicts and tensions exist. Reading Chapter 1 of America’s Courts and the Criminal Justice System, gives one a sense of how or what it is like to be an actor of the court-a prosecutor, juror, judge or a defense attorney. This makes it easy for a lay man to understand the process and role in brininging a case throught the court system. The approach by the authors of trying to illustrate fictious or dramatical court proceedings, as well as real court proceedings makes it easy for peopele to understand the criminal justice system from a common or popular perspective. Stepping into Chapter 2 of America’s Courts and the Criminal Justice System book helps the readers understand the key elements that define

Types of Music and Their Fundamental Attractions Essay

Types of Music and Their Fundamental Attractions - Essay Example Originally this was pre-eminently the church; after the Middle Ages, it became more and more the courts of the secular nobility of Europe. As recently as the late eighteen century Haydn and Mozart wrote most of their music for performance in the private orchestras and theatres, and hence the classical composers developed their orchestral symphonies, their chamber music and operas. It was Beethoven who completed the plans for the orchestra begun by Haydn. One of Beethoven's greatest legacies to the world is the modern orchestra. The orchestra speaks a noble language. Happiness or sorrow is in its tones. Its voice can speak of peace or war, of every thought, fear, hope grief, or the joy of mankind. Because Beethoven's music had those same qualities, he wanted the orchestra to fully express them. He made the orchestra to suit the purpose of his music. Beethoven used the string choir for the heart of his orchestra. He strengthened the woodwind choir and the brass choir. He made the tympani into living drums. In other words, he gave the orchestra a new unity and a new power.  

Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Lab Report Example The product produced is easy to handle and easy to apply due to the use of peppermint oil. The peppermint also improves its flavor. As provided by the ingredients we can see that calcium carbonate is the major ingredient with the heaviest weight (Field). As discussed above the ingredient is responsible for protection against tooth decay, dental carries and other forms of tooth infections. Re-mineralization is a basic concern in preparation of any toothpaste since it helps in fighting dental carries a common disease worldwide. Calcium and phosphate are also important since they are able to alter cariogenic potential of dental plaque biofilm. The paste is applied depending on the size of the toothbrush. A small amount is applied and brushed over the teeth in a normal brushing way (Perlich, Bacca and Bollmer). The contents should be disposed immediately the process of brushing is over. The mouth should be cleaned and rinsed with fresh clean water. The toothpaste has no harmful effects and can be used regularly depending on the user needs. The paste should be stored in a cool and dry place to prevent it from drying. The paste should be used while fresh and valid. If it expires it can have negative and harmful effects. Since it is homemade and non-medicated it is advisable that little content is made at a time to prevent cases if impurity. Homemade paste made ensured protection of the gums and the teeth in general since these are the main reasons as to why people go for toothpastes. The paste helps in re-mineralization which is also an important aspect of dental carries control and other infections in the mouth. Perlich, MA, et al. "The clinical effect of a stabilized stannous fluoride dentifrice on plaque formation, gingivitis and gingival bleeding: a six-month study." The Journal of Clinical Dentistry (1995): 6 (Special Issue):

Reading summaries Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reading summaries - Assignment Example Protest scholars are concerned with restoring injustice. In protesters concept, they look at human rights as the theory that favors the status quo in favor of the oppressed (Dembour 3). However, the disclose scholars believe that human rights exist because everyone talks about them. Human rights according to Beitz, is a communication in the public ethics of world policies. He argues that every individual is the subject of the world concern and that it is everyone’s task to enact these rules (Beitz 1). Universality is a worry of whether all the human rights included can be seen as important by everyone. As such, most people tend to misuse these rules for their selfish reasons. There are different forms of skepticism in which some individuals think that there should be a form of a procedure to implement these human rights. The first skeptic clarifies that the satisfaction of some human rights is not realistic under the current social position of the world (Beitz 3). Finally, there is a skeptical concept that explains that human rights are universal. As such, the rights are relevant and are to be claimed by everyone. Maurice, an author supports the traditional human rights, which includes the political and civil rights. However, he rejects the universal human rights, which are termed as economical and social rights that encompass pensions, holidays, insurance among others. Universality according to Cranston is a right available to everyone at all times. For instance, the right to humane treatment is a perfect example of universality. There is a test for human rights and moral uprightness. Practicability Test, clarifies that it is not a duty for an individual to do what is physically impossible (Maurice and Raphael 50). For instance, if all workers in the world should ask for holiday rights then, it would not be practicable for industries that are establishing. The test of paramount

The Englishtenment Period and the Value of Women's Rights Article

The Englishtenment Period and the Value of Women's Rights - Article Example The fact that she is from China is telling and relevant. Chinese culture has not been known for gender equality, and in fact, women from the country have always been compelled to follow certain rules and strictures on how to behave. Foot binding, or the process of binding feet of girl-children so that they get deformed and resemble lotuses, is one of China’s anachronistic traditions. But the article is telling us that those days are drawing to an end and Chinese women are claiming their place and breaking new barriers. This recognition of women is one of the contributions of the Enlightenment period. To quote Carla Hesse, writing on women writers during the Enlightenment period, â€Å"the data on women writers suggests that the economic and commercial vision of the Enlightenment and Revolution opened up possibilities for female participation in an absolutely central arena of modern public life that was at odds with the dominant male conception of appropriate relations between the sexes.† How do we relate these Enlightenment values with the values of our times? In the modern days, the legitimacy of the struggle for women’s rights is largely accepted. Women are believed to be equal to men in most respects – they can work, vote, run for public office, and aspire towards their goals. Feminists all over the world have fought for these rights and have fought for the mainstreaming of gender values. Admittedly, there is still a lot that needs to be done and so much more than needs to be accomplished. In the developing world, women’s needs are still considered secondary to men, and in conflict and poverty situations, women tend to be at higher risk of hunger and malnutrition.  

Literary vs. Research Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Literary vs. Research Theory - Essay Example The final example is the New Criticism based on moral and religious structures (Klarer, 2004). Research theory, on the other hand, is a systematic method, mostly used in social sciences, to generate new theories or test existing ones on the basis of data analysis. In the case of creation of a new theory, an existing theory is used as a basis for suggestions as to what kind of research should be carried out. Challenging an existing theory consists of using data as dictated by the null hypothesis based on the existing theory. Examples of research theories include descriptive theories, co relational theories and experimental theories (Klarer, 2004). Both literary and research theories have methods or schools of thought that cannot be clearly cut from one another. They both provide a general sense of a basis in which we can base our arguments as we try to explain the complexities of various aspects in life. Both theories are important in attempting to rationalize different phenomena, and in trying the core cause-effect relationship (Klarer,

Reading summaries Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reading summaries - Assignment Example Protest scholars are concerned with restoring injustice. In protesters concept, they look at human rights as the theory that favors the status quo in favor of the oppressed (Dembour 3). However, the disclose scholars believe that human rights exist because everyone talks about them. Human rights according to Beitz, is a communication in the public ethics of world policies. He argues that every individual is the subject of the world concern and that it is everyone’s task to enact these rules (Beitz 1). Universality is a worry of whether all the human rights included can be seen as important by everyone. As such, most people tend to misuse these rules for their selfish reasons. There are different forms of skepticism in which some individuals think that there should be a form of a procedure to implement these human rights. The first skeptic clarifies that the satisfaction of some human rights is not realistic under the current social position of the world (Beitz 3). Finally, there is a skeptical concept that explains that human rights are universal. As such, the rights are relevant and are to be claimed by everyone. Maurice, an author supports the traditional human rights, which includes the political and civil rights. However, he rejects the universal human rights, which are termed as economical and social rights that encompass pensions, holidays, insurance among others. Universality according to Cranston is a right available to everyone at all times. For instance, the right to humane treatment is a perfect example of universality. There is a test for human rights and moral uprightness. Practicability Test, clarifies that it is not a duty for an individual to do what is physically impossible (Maurice and Raphael 50). For instance, if all workers in the world should ask for holiday rights then, it would not be practicable for industries that are establishing. The test of paramount

Literary vs. Research Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Literary vs. Research Theory - Essay Example The final example is the New Criticism based on moral and religious structures (Klarer, 2004). Research theory, on the other hand, is a systematic method, mostly used in social sciences, to generate new theories or test existing ones on the basis of data analysis. In the case of creation of a new theory, an existing theory is used as a basis for suggestions as to what kind of research should be carried out. Challenging an existing theory consists of using data as dictated by the null hypothesis based on the existing theory. Examples of research theories include descriptive theories, co relational theories and experimental theories (Klarer, 2004). Both literary and research theories have methods or schools of thought that cannot be clearly cut from one another. They both provide a general sense of a basis in which we can base our arguments as we try to explain the complexities of various aspects in life. Both theories are important in attempting to rationalize different phenomena, and in trying the core cause-effect relationship (Klarer,

An Analytical Response to the 1978 film, F. I. S. T. Essay Example for Free

An Analytical Response to the 1978 film, F. I. S. T. Essay The plot of the film basically revolve around the life of a worker who desperately seeks a better and a more comfortable life by working hard in a very low-paying job with a management who imposes very harsh and unjust rules and guidelines. The story also deals with the struggles of the workers to earn respect and the right and fair kind of treatment they deserve. The plot centers on the life and struggles of Johnny Kovac’s character which was played by Sylvester Stallone. The character was portrayed as a willful trucker who decided to join the Federation of Interstate Truckers (FIST) to fight and campaign for just treatments among all the country’s truckers like him (â€Å"F. I. S. T. 1987†). Through out the story, Kovac was challenged by a lot of more powerful individual since he was seen as a very strong threat to their deceptive intentions. He also received a lot of threats and physical tortures since he was actually fighting very powerful people. But despite all these challenges, Kovac was nevertheless able to prove that he is stronger than anyone who opposes his intentions to uplift the lives of simple truckers who just deserve fair treatment from their superiors. This was the major conflict and drive of the story. Kovac, as the main protagonist both serves as a hero and the base character of the story where all the other conflicts and highlights are based from. The story emphasized on Kovac’s principles and his efforts of fighting for their rights as truckers. Kovac and all the other characters in the story were portrayed to be simple and typical people with whom, viewers can easily empathize. However, his defeat and death at the end has put a rather distressing and saddening effect to the story. II. Issues The story was basically about the lives and struggles of truckers. Just like other workers, truckers have rights and privileges that they can demand from their superiors. However in this movie, the workers were rather treated unjustly by the management. They were given inadequate compensation and several unfair rules and regulations have been imposed on them. Kovac, as a trucker himself stood up and fought for his principles and afterwards fought for the influence of the labor union, FIST, which he became part of. The movie had a particular emphasis on the laborer’s rights and privileges. The unjust treatments to these workers portrayed in the film are one manifestation that in the real world, this undeserved treatment is also observable. Through the depiction of this issue it can be implied that some capitalist may really have been so fed up by their wealth that they forget that there are still other important things to consider aside from getting richer and this is the welfare of their workers. And because of this issue, the characters of the movie can be observed to seek for their rights and privileges in a rather aggressive way because of the unpleasant manner their company has used to treat them. The issues were basically about, (1) what implications can unjust treatment and deprivation of privileges causes workers; and (2) how well do labor unions actually help in eliminating the hostile relationships between workers and companies. And because this issue has been depicted to have taken all the patience of the workers, some of them have even developed stronger sense of selfishness and greed. Some also developed greed towards money. Kovac on the other hand became more and more obsessed of recruiting for member to join FIST since he wanted his mission and his intention to voice out the wants of the workers to be accomplished as early as he can. These implications may in some ways appear similar to the effects of unjust treatments to laborers people experience in real life. Just like in this film, people may indeed grow hostile and aggressive once their rights and privileges will be deprived of them. But nonetheless, if there is one lesson that this movie was able to send out, it is the fact that it is never just and acceptable to fight for one’s principle in destructive ways. III. Discussion In several ways, this movie appears to carry considerable significance to the real occurrences of unjust treatment among workers in the society. In real life, these incidents are undeniable that is why unions exist. However, the arguable thing is this movie is that Kovac and his other colleagues appeared to fight for what they believe in rather hostile and destructive ways which only made the situations worse. Aside from this, a lot of characters were also depicted to be deceived by wealth and power which made them turn their . backs to their moral perspectives. Thus, this can be considered as one of the moral threats unjust treatments can really cause an individual. In its entirety, the movie appears to be a total representation what goes on in a union and how its members fight for what they believe in. But what appears to be an upsetting and disturbing part of the story is the aggression and immorality which brought about . worse situations and events. IV. Opinion Truly, every person in this world deserved fair treatment as every person deserves equal rights and privileges as well. In a company, the relationship of the executive management to the workers can be considered very crucial. In order to form a pleasant relationship between these two, each party must respect and provide the deserved treatment and benefit of the other party. Because once this rule is broken, hostility might definitely spark which will eventually form an unpleasant relationship between the workers and the management. Personally, I think the movie had an interesting inspiration; however, the real message was not that effectively sent out to the viewers because of the distractions that came from all the unnecessary actions and violence portrayed in the film. But nonetheless, I see this film as a good depiction of how worse a situation may get once a worker’s rights and privileges be unjustly deprived from him or her. Works Cited â€Å"F. I. S. T. (1987): Plot Summary. † The Internet Movie Database. IMDb. com. (n. d. ). (14 May 2009). http://www. imdb. com/title/tt0077531/plotsummary. F. I. S. T. Dir: Norman Jewinson. Writer: Joe Eszterhas and Sylvester Stallone. Cast: Sylvester Stallone, Rod Steiger, Peter Boyle, Melinda Dillon, David Huffman, Kevin Conway and Tony Lo Bianco. Chateau Productions, 1987.

Advantages and Limitations of Neural Networks

Advantages and Limitations of Neural Networks There are many advantages and limitations to neural network analysis and to discuss this subject properly we would have to look at each individual type of network, which isnt necessary for this general discussion. In reference to backpropagational networks however, there are some specific issues potential users should be aware of. Backpropagational neural networks (and many other types of networks) are in a sense the ultimate black boxes. Apart from defining the general archetecture of a network and perhaps initially seeding it with a random numbers, the user has no other role than to feed it input and watch it train and await the output. In fact, it has been said that with backpropagation, you almost dont know what youre doing. Some software freely available software packages (NevProp, bp, Mactivation) do allow the user to sample the networks progress at regular time intervals, but the learning itself progresses on its own. The final product of this activity is a trained network that provides no equations or coefficients defining a relationship (as in regression) beyond its own internal mathematics. The network IS the final equation of the relationship. Backpropagational networks also tend to be slower to train than other types of networks and sometimes require thousands of epochs. If run on a truly parallel computer system this issue is not really a problem, but if the BPNN is being simulated on a standard serial machine (i.e. a single SPARC, Mac or PC) training can take some time. This is because the machines CPU must compute the function of each node and connection separately, which can be problematic in very large networks with a large amount of data. However, the speed of most current machines is such that this is typically not much of an issue. The advantage of neural networks over conventional programming lies on their ability to solve problems that do not have an algorithmic solution or the available solution is too complex to be found. Neural networks are well suited to tackle problems that people are good at solving, like prediction and pattern recognition (Keller). Neural networks have been applied within the medical domain for clinical diagnosis (Baxt:95), image analysis and interpretation (Miller:92, Miller:93), signal analysis and interpretation, and drug development (Weinstein:92). The classification of the applications presented below is simplified, since most of the examples lie in more than one category (e.g. diagnosis and image interpretation; diagnosis and signal interpretation). Depending on the nature of the application and the strength of the internal data patterns you can generally expect a network to train quite well. This applies to problems where the relationships may be quite dynamic or non-linear. ANN s provide an analytical alternative to conventional techniques which are often limited by strict assumptions of normality, linearity, variable independence etc. Because an ANN can capture many kinds of relationships it allows the user to quickly and relatively easily model phenomena which otherwise may have been very difficult or imposible to explain otherwise. Future Enhancements Because gazing into the future is somewhat like gazing into a crystal ball, so it is better to quote some predictions. Each prediction rests on some sort of evidence or established trend which, with extrapolation, clearly takes us into a new realm. Prediction 1: Neural Networks will fascinate user-specific systems for education, information processing, and entertainment. Alternative ralities, produced by comprehensive environments, are attractive in terms of their potential for systems control, education, and entertainment. This is not just a far-out research trend, but is something which is becoming an increasing part of our daily existence, as witnessed by the growing interest in comprehensive entertainment centers in each home. This programming would require feedback from the user in order to be effective but simple and passive sensors (e.g fingertip sensors, gloves, or wristbands to sense pulse, blood pressure, skin ionisation, and so on), could provide effective feedback into a neural control system. This could be achieved, for example, with sensors that would detect pulse, blood pressure, skin ionisation, and other variables which the system could learn to correlate with a persons response state. Prediction 2: Neural networks, integrated with other artificial intelligence technologies, methods for direct culture of nervous tissue, and other exotic technologies such as genetic engineering, will allow us to develop radical and exotic life-forms whether man, machine, or hybrid. Prediction 3: Neural networks will allow us to explore new realms of human capability realms previously available only with extensive training and personal discipline. So a specific state of consciously induced neurophysiologically observable awareness is necessary in order to facilitate a man machine system interface. Recommendations The major issues of concern today are the scalability problem, testing, verification, and integration of neural network systems into the modern environment. Neural network programs sometimes become unstable when applied to larger problems. The defence, nuclear and space industries are concerned about the issue of testing and verification. The mathematical theories used to guarantee the performance of an applied neural network are still under development. The solution for the time being may be to train and test these intelligent systems much as we do for humans. Also there are some more practical problems like: the operational problem encountered when attempting to simulate the parallelism of neural networks. Since the majority of neural networks are simulated on sequential machines, giving rise to a very rapid increase in processing time requirements as size of the problem expands. Solution: implement neural networks directly in hardware, but these need a lot of development still. ÂÂ ¢ instability to explain any results that they obtain. Networks function as black boxes whose rules of operation are completely unknown. There are many advantages and limitations to neural network analysis and to discuss this subject properly we would have to look at each individual type of network, which isnt necessary for this general discussion. In reference to backpropagational networks however, there are some specific issues potential users should be aware of. ÂÂ ¢ Backpropagational neural networks (and many other types of networks) are in a sense the ultimate black boxes. Apart from defining the general archetecture of a network and perhaps initially seeding it with a random numbers, the user has no other role than to feed it input and watch it train and await the output. In fact, it has been said that with backpropagation, you almost dont know what youre doing. Some software freely available software packages (NevProp, bp, Mactivation) do allow the user to sample the networks progress at regular time intervals, but the learning itself progresses on its own. The final product of this activity is a trained network that provides no equations or coefficients defining a relationship (as in regression) beyond its own internal mathematics. The network IS the final equation of the relationship. ÂÂ ¢ Backpropagational networks also tend to be slower to train than other types of networks and sometimes require thousands of epochs. If run on a truly parallel computer system this issue is not really a problem, but if the BPNN is being simulated on a standard serial machine (i.e. a single SPARC, Mac or PC) training can take some time. This is because the machines CPU must compute the function of each node and connection separately, which can be problematic in very large networks with a large amount of data. However, the speed of most current machines is such that this is typically not much of an issue. Conclusion In this paper, we have presented a system for recognizing handwritten English characters. An experimental result shows that backpropagation network yields good recognition accuracy of 85%. We have demonstrated the application of MLP network to the handwritten character recognition problem. The skeletonized and normalized binary pixels of these characters were used as the inputs of the MLP network. In our further research work, we would like to improve the recognition accuracy of network for character recognition by using more training samples written by one person and by using a good feature extraction system. The training time may be reduced by using a good feature extraction technique and instead of using global input, we may use the feature input along with other neural network classifier. The computing world has a lot to gain from neural networks. Their ability to learn by example makes them very flexible and powerful. Furthermore there is no need to devise an algorithm in order to perform a specific task; i.e. there is no need to understand the internal mechanisms of that task. They are also very well suited for real time systems because of their fast response and computational times which are due to their parallel architecture. Neural networks also contribute to other areas of research such as neurology and psychology. They are regularly used to model parts of living organisms and to investigate the internal mechanisms of the brain. Perhaps the most exciting aspect of neural networks is the possibility that some day conscious networks might be produced. There are a number of scientists arguing that consciousness is a mechanical property and that conscious neural networks are a realistic possibility. Finally, I would like to state that even though neural networks have a huge potential we will only get the best of them when they are integrated with computing, AI, fuzzy logic and related subjects

To what extent does Jane Eyre’s past affect her fate? :: English Literature

To what extend does Jane Eyre’s past affect her fate? Charlotte Brontà « uses many different ways to affect Jane Eyre’s fate. By giving Jane a difficult and tiresome childhood from a very young age it has an effect on her adult life. From a very early age Jane Eyre had a very unusual childhood. She started in a very unloving family with her aunts and cousins. She felt unloved and had a sense of refusal. Her cousin John beat her and she always hit back. When she did so, she was often caught and locked in the red room. Her auntie sent her to Loward boarding school. This was a very worrying time for Jane because already at the age of around 10 she has had no love and care in her life. The boarding school didn’t aid her in anyway. At boarding school Jane did not fit in. Again she was not cared for. She felt unsafe, unhappy, but does find her first friend. Helen Burns is a real turning point in Jane’s life. Jane really stood up for her new friend too. When Helen gets punished Jane stays with her. Little bits like this help to shape Jane into a Lady and who she will be when she is older. Jane’s new friend was a good believer in God. When Helen was very ill, Jane realises that Helen is in trouble and could die, Helen tells Jane what will happen when she dies. â€Å"I am very happy, Jane; and when you hear that I am dead, you must be sure and not grieve: there is nothing to grieve about.† This scene takes part in Helen’s bed, and is a very touching scene of the two girls bonding. The scene is clam and relaxed. By using long sentences, you can get a feel that Helen’s voice is soft, and that there is there are no interruptions. Helen goes on later to say, â€Å"I have only a father, and he is lately married, and will not miss me. By dying young, I shall escape great sufferings. I had not qualities or talents to make my way very well in the world: I should have been continually at fault† Jane and Helen have something in common here. The girls both have the sense that their families don’t love them and that they are in life on their own. But, now they have found each other, the girls are comforted that they are not the only ones. Helen has her own beliefs and opinions too. â€Å"†¦my Maker and yours, who will never destroy what He created. I rely

Creating a Robot to Guard Property with Lego Mindstorm :: Robotics

The Protectobot Abstract My final project is to build a robot that will use non-violent techniques to keep animals out of yards. Using the Lego Mindstorm Kit I was able to complete this project. When certain animals walk by my robot, it throws gears towards the animal to scare it away. It can tell the difference between good animals and bad, and does not harm them in any way. Background For many years people have been trying to find non-violent ways to keep animals out of their yards and away from family pets. Various attempts have included motion detecting sprinklers, electric fences, fake smells, and ultrasonic sound bursts. These devices work in some cases but not in all. Motion sprinklers spray short bursts of water when they detect animals. Some animals however, like to get wet so the motion sprinklers will not necessarily work on all. Ultrasonic sound burst devices detect when an animal is near and sends out a two second ultrasonic sound burst. These bursts can be heard by animals but not by humans so they may have a hard time figuring out when the batteries run out or when it is broken. Electric fences can sometimes hurt animals, including pets that are allowed to be in our backyards. Fake smells of the animal’s enemy can also help scare the animal away. There are often unwanted animals in my family’s backyard. They eat our fruit from our trees, and tear up our grass. We have been trying to find more effective ways to keep them out for a long time. For my final project, I decided to make a robot that will detect when an animal walks by it. When it detects an animal, it will throw small objects at whatever it is that moved. I have not yet decided what it is that my robot will throw. It has to be harder than a sponge, but cannot be so hard that it will hurt something. As a warning to humans, it will make a beep noise before it throws the object. Procedures I built many small parts to put together to make my functioning robot. It is made up of the launching pad, gear/motor station, the RCX platform, and the head. I first built the launching platform. It is made up of black beams ranging in size from one to sixteen. They are put together in rows with reinforcements on the opposite sides running in the other direction. They came together to form a triangular shape with two gears at the end. I then attached gears and a motor to the platform so that the motor is able

Parental Involvement Essay

The goal of positive and productive family and community involvement is on every school improvement list, but few schools have implemented comprehensive programs of partnership. Research suggests that this goal is an important one to reach because families and communities contribute to children’s learning, development, and school success at every grade level. Studies are accumulating that show that well-designed programs of partnership are important for helping all families support their children’s education in elementary, middle, and high schools. That is, if schools plan and implement comprehensive programs of partnership, then many more families respond, including those who would not become involved on their own. Three questions need to be addressed to help educators move from believing in the importance of family and community involvement to conducting effective programs of partnership: What is a comprehensive program of school, family, and community partnerships? How do family and community partnerships link to other aspects of successful schools? How can all schools develop and sustain productive programs of partnerships? Components of a Comprehensive Program of Partnerships A framework of six types of involvement guides schools in establishing full and productive programs of school-family-community partnerships. This section summarizes the six types of involvement and discusses a few sample practices that are being implemented in schools across the country that are working to improve and increase family and community connections. Also noted are some of the challenges that all schools must overcome to create successful partnerships, along with examples of results that can be expected from each type of involvement for students, families, and educators. Comprehensive programs of partnerships include activities for all six types of involvement. Because there are many activities to choose from, elementary, middle, and high schools can tailor their programs of partnerships by selecting activities that match specific school goals and the interests and needs of students and families. Type 1–Parenting. Type 1 activities are conducted to help families strengthen parenting skills, understand child and adolescent development, and set home conditions to support learning at each school level. Type 1 activities also enable families to provide information to schools so that educators understand families’ backgrounds, cultures, and goals for their children. Sample practices. Among Type 1 activities, elementary, middle, and high schools may conduct workshops for parents; provide short, clear summaries of important information on parenting; and organize opportunities for parents to exchange ideas with other parents, educators, and community experts on topics of child and adolescent development. Topics may include health, nutrition, discipline, guidance, peer pressure, preventing drug abuse, and planning for the future. Type 1 activities also provide families with information on what to expect and how to prepare for students’ transitions from pre-school to elementary school, elementary to middle school, and middle to high school. Additional topics for successful parenting may concern family roles and responsibilities in student attendance, college planning, and other topics that are important for student success in school. Schools also may offer parents General Educational Development (GED) programs, family support sessions, family computer classes, and other learning and social opportunities for parents and for students. To ensure that families provide valuable information to the schools, teachers may ask parents at the start of each school year or periodically to share insights about their children’s strengths, talents, interests, needs, and goals. Challenges. One challenge for successful Type 1 activities is to get information from workshops to parents who cannot come to meetings and workshops at the school building. This may be done with videos, tape recordings, summaries, newsletters, cable broadcasts, phone calls, and other print and nonprint communications. Another Type 1 challenge is to design procedures that enable all families to share information easily and as needed about their children with teachers, counselors, and others. Results expected. If useful information flows to and from families about child and adolescent development, parents will increase their confidence about parenting, students will be more aware of parents’ continuing guidance, and teachers will better understand their students’ families. For example, if practices are targeted to help families send their children to school every day and on time, then student attendance will improve and lateness will decrease. If families are part of their children’s transitions to elementary, middle, and high school, then more students will adjust well to their new schools, and more parents will remain involved across the grades. Type 2–Communicating. Type 2 activities increase school-to-home and home-to-school communications about school programs and student progress through notices, memos, conferences, report cards, newsletters, telephone calls, e-mail and computerized messages, the Internet, open houses, and other traditional and innovative communications. Sample practices. Among many Type 2 activities, elementary, middle, and high schools may provide parents with clear information on each teacher’s criteria for report card grades; how to interpret interim progress reports; and, as necessary, how to work with students to improve grades or behavior. Type 2 activities include parent-teacher conferences; parent-teacher-student conferences; or student-led conferences with parents and teachers. Student involvement in conferences helps youngsters take personal responsibility for learning. Activities may be designed to improve school and student newsletters by including student work, a feature column for parents’ questions, calendars of important events, and parent response forms. Many schools are beginning to use e-mail, voice mail, and websites to encourage two-way communication between families and teachers, counselors, and administrators. Challenges. One challenge for successful Type 2 activities is to make communications clear and understandable for all families, including parents who have less formal education or who do not read English well, so that all families can understand and respond to the information they receive. Other Type 2 challenges are to know which families are and are not receiving and understanding the communications in order to design ways to reach all families; develop effective two-way channels of communication so that families can easily contact and respond to educators; and make sure that students understand their roles as couriers and interpreters in facilitating school and family connections. Results expected. If communications are clear and useful, and if two-way channels are easily accessed, then school-to-home and home-to-school interactions will increase; more families will understand school programs, follow their children’s progress, guide students to maintain or improve their grades, and attend parent-teacher conferences. Specifically, if computerized phone lines are used to communicate information about homework, more families will know more about their children’s daily assignments. If newsletters include respond-andreply forms, more families will send ideas, questions, and comments to teachers and administrators about school programs and activities. Type 3–Volunteering. Type 3 activities are designed to improve recruitment, training, and schedules to involve parents and others as volunteers and as audiences at the school or in other locations to support students and school programs. Sample practices. Among many Type 3 activities, schools may collect information on family members’ talents, occupations, interests, and availability to serve as volunteers. These important human resources may help enrich students’ subject classes; improve career explorations; serve as language translators; monitor attendance and call parents of absent students; conduct â€Å"parent patrols† and â€Å"morning greeters† to increase school safety; and organize and improve activities such as clothing and uniform exchanges, school stores, and fairs. Schools may organize volunteers to serve as home-room parents, neighborhood representatives, and sports and club contacts and may establish telephone trees to help parents communicate with each other about school programs and events. Schools may establish a corps of volunteers to offer a â€Å"wel-come wagon† of information about the school to students and families who enroll during the school year. Schools also may create opportunities for mentors, coaches, tutors, and leaders of after-school programs to ensure that students have experiences that build and expand their skills and talents and that keep them safe and supervised after school. Some Type 3 activities may be conducted in a parent room or family center at the school where parents obtain information, conduct volunteer work, and meet with other parents. Challenges. Challenges for successful Type 3 activities are to recruit volunteers widely so that parents and other family members feel welcome; make hours flexible for parents and other volunteers who work during the school day; provide needed training; and enable volunteers to contribute productively to the school, classroom, and after-school programs. Volunteers will be better integrated in school programs if there is a coordinator who is responsible for matching volunteers’ available times and skills with the needs of teachers, administrators, and students. Another Type 3 challenge is to change the definition of â€Å"volunteer† to mean anyone who supports school goals or students’ learning at any time and in any place. This includes parents and family members who voluntarily come to school as audiences for students’ sports events, assemblies, and musical or drama presentations, and for other events that support students’ work. It also includes volunteers who work for the school at home, through their businesses, or in the community. A related challenge is to help students understand how volunteers help their school and to encourage students to interact with volunteers who can assist them with their work and activities. Results expected. If tasks are well designed, and if schedules and locations for volunteers are varied, more parents, family members, and others in the community will assist elementary, middle, and high schools and support students as members of audiences. More families will feel comfortable with the school and staff; more students will talk and interact with varied adults; and more teachers will be aware of and use the time, talents, and resources of parents and others in the community to improve school programs and activities. Specifically, if volunteers serve as attendance monitors, more families will assist students to improve attendance. If volunteers conduct a â€Å"hall patrol† or are active in other locations, school safety will increase and student behavior problems will decrease because of a better student–adult ratio. If volunteers are well-trained as tutors in particular subjects, student tutees will improve their skills in those subjects; and if volunteers discuss careers, students will be more aware of their options for the future. Type 4–Learning at home. Type 4 activities involve families with their children in academic learning activities at home that are coordinated with students’ classwork and that contribute to student success in school. These include interactive homework, goal-setting for academic subjects, and other curricular-linked activities and decisions about courses and programs. Sample practices. Among many Type 4 activities, elementary, middle, and high schools may provide information to students and to parents about the skills needed to pass each class, course, or grade level and about each teacher’s homework policies. Schools also may implement activities that can help families encourage, praise, guide, and monitor their children’s work by using interactive homework strategies; student-teacher-family contracts for long-term projects; summer home-learning packets; student-led at-home conferences with parents on portfolios or folders of writing samples or work in other subjects; goal-setting activities for improving or maintaining good report card grades in all subjects; and other approaches that keep students and families talking about schoolwork at home. Family fun and learning nights are often used as a starting point to help parents and students focus on curricular-related topics and family interactions. These meetings require parents to come to the school building. A systematic approach to increasing academic conversations at home is found in the Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) interactive homework for the elementary and middle grades. Challenges. One challenge for successful Type 4 activities is to implement a regular schedule of interactive homework that requires students to take responsibility for discussing important things they are learning, interviewing family members, recording reactions, and sharing their work and ideas at home. Another Type 4 challenge is to create a schedule of activities that involve families regularly and systematically with students on short-term and long-term goal-setting for attendance, achievement, behavior, talent development, and plans for college or careers. Results expected. If Type 4 activities are well designed and implemented, student homework completion, report card grades, and test scores in specific subjects will improve; and more families will know what their children are learning in class and how to monitor, support, and discuss homework. More students should complete required course credits, select advanced courses, and take college entrance tests. Students and teachers will be more aware of families’ interest in students’ work. Type 5–Decision-making. Type 5 activities include families in developing schools’ mission statements and in designing, reviewing, and improving school policies that affect children and families. Family members become active participants on school improvement teams, committees, PTA/PTO or other parent organizations, Title I and other councils, and advocacy groups. Sample practices. Among Type 5 activities, elementary, middle, and high schools may organize and maintain an active parent association and include family representatives on all committees for school improvement (e.g., curriculum, safety, supplies and equipment, partnerships, fund-raising, postsecondary college planning, career development). In particular, along with teachers, administrators, students, and others from the community, parents must be members of the â€Å"Action Team for Partnerships,† which plans and conducts family and community involvement activities linked to school improvement goals. Schools may offer parents and teachers training in leadership, decision-making, policy advocacy, and collaboration. Type 5 activities help to identify and provide information desired by families about school policies, course offerings, student placements and groups, special services, tests and assessments, annual test results for students, and annual evaluations of school program s. Challenges. One challenge for successful Type 5 activities in all schools is to ensure that leadership roles are filled by parent representatives from all of the major race and ethnic groups, socioeconomic groups, and neighborhoods that are present in the school. A related challenge is to help parent leaders serve as effective representatives by obtaining information from and providing information to all parents about school issues and decisions. At the high school level, a particular challenge is to include student representatives along with parents in decisionmaking groups and in leadership positions. An ongoing challenge is to help parents, teachers, and students who serve on an Action Team for Partnerships or other committees learn to trust, respect, and listen to each other as they collaborate to reach common goals for school improvement. Results expected. If Type 5 activities are well implemented in elementary, middle, and high schools, more families will have input into decisions that affect the quality of their children’s education; students will increase their awareness that families and students have a say in school policies; and teachers will increase their understanding of family perspectives on policies and programs for improving the school. Type 6–Collaborating with the community. Type 6 activities draw upon and coordinate the work and resources of community businesses; cultural, civic, and religious organizations; senior citizen groups; colleges and universities; governmental agencies; and other associations in order to strengthen school programs, family practices, and student learning and development. Other Type 6 activities enable students, staff, and families to contribute their services to the community. Sample practices. Among many Type 6 activities, elementary, middle, and high schools may inform students and families about the availability of community programs and resources, such as after-school recreation, tutorial programs, health services, cultural events, service opportunities, and summer programs. This includes the need to assist students and families to gain access to community resources and programs. Some schools work with local businesses to organize â€Å"gold card† discounts as incentives for students to improve attendance and report card grades. Collaborations with community businesses, groups, and agencies also strengthen the other five types of involvement. Examples include enhancing Type 1 activities by conducting parent education workshops for families at community or business locations; increasing Type 2 activities by communicating about school events on the local radio or television stations, and at churches, clinics, and supermarkets; soliciting volunteers from businesses and the community to strengthen Type 3 activities; enriching Type 4 activities by offering students learning opportunities with artists, scientists, writers, mathematicians, and others whose careers link to the school curriculum; and including community members on Type 5 decision-making councils and committees. Challenges. One challenge for successful Type 6 activities is to solve problems associated with community-school collaborations, such as â€Å"turf† problems of who is responsible for funding, leading, and supervising cooperative activities. The initial enthusiasm and decisions for school-community partnerships must be followed by actions that sustain productive collaborations over the long term. Another Type 6 challenge is to recognize and link students’ valuable learning experiences in the community to the school curricula, including lessons that build on students’ nonschool skills and talents, their club and volunteer work, and, in high school, their part-time jobs. A major challenge is to inform and involve families in community-related activities that students conduct. Related challenges are to help students understand how community partners help their school and to engage students, themselves, as volunteers and in service-learning in their own schools, in other schools, and in the community. Results expected. Well-implemented Type 6 activities will increase the knowledge that families, students, and schools have about the resources and programs in their community that could help them reach important goals. Well-designed community connections will increase student access to and participation in community programs. Coordinated community services could help many students and their families prevent health, social, and educational problems or solve problems before they become too serious. Type 6 activities also should support and enrich school curricular and extracurricular programs. Summary. The six types of involvement create a comprehensive program of partnerships in elementary, middle, and high schools, but the implementation challenges for each type of involvement must be met in order for programs to be effective. The quality of the design and content of the involvement activities directly affect the expected results. Not every practice that involves families will result in higher student achievement test scores. Rather, practices for each type of involvement can be selected to help students, families, and teachers reach specific goals and results. The examples above include only a few of hundreds of suggestions that can help elementary, middle, and high schools develop strong programs of partnerships. How Partnerships Link to Other Aspects of Successful Schools Good schools have qualified and talented teachers and administrators, high expectations that all students will succeed, rigorous curricula, engaging instruction, responsive and useful tests and assessments, strong guidance for every student, and effective school, family, and community partnerships. In good schools, these elements combine to promote students’ learning and to create a school climate that is welcoming, safe, caring, stimulating, and joyful for all students, educators, and families.